GNSS

The accuracy and reliability of vehicle localization on roads are crucial for applications such as self-driving cars, toll systems, and digital tachographs. To achieve accurate positioning, vehicles typically use global navigation satellite system (GNSS) receivers to validate their absolute positions. However, GNSS-based positioning can be compromised by interference signals, necessitating the identification, classification, determination of purpose, and localization of such interference to mitigate or eliminate it. Recent approaches based on machine learning (ML) have shown superior performance in monitoring interference. However, their feasibility in real-world applications and environments has yet to be assessed. Effective implementation of ML techniques requires training datasets that incorporate realistic interference signals, including real-world noise and potential multipath effects that may occur between transmitter, receiver, and satellite in the operational area. Additionally, these datasets require reference labels. Creating such datasets is often challenging due to legal restrictions, as causing interference to GNSS sources is strictly prohibited. Consequently, the performance of ML-based methods in practical applications remains unclear. To address this gap, we describe a series of large-scale measurement campaigns conducted in real-world settings at two highway locations in Germany and the Seetal Alps in Austria, and in large-scale controlled indoor environments. We evaluate the latest supervised ML-based methods to report on their performance in real-world settings and present the applicability of pseudo-labeling for unsupervised learning. We demonstrate the challenges of combining datasets due to data discrepancies and evaluate outlier detection, domain adaptation, and data augmentation techniques to present the models' capabilities to adapt to changes in the datasets.

Federated learning (FL) enables multiple devices to collaboratively train a global model while maintaining data on local servers. Each device trains the model on its local server and shares only the model updates (i.e., gradient weights) during the aggregation step. A significant challenge in FL is managing the feature distribution of novel, unbalanced data across devices. In this paper, we propose an FL approach using few-shot learning and aggregation of the model weights on a global server. We introduce a dynamic early stopping method to balance out-of-distribution classes based on representation learning, specifically utilizing the maximum mean discrepancy of feature embeddings between local and global models. An exemplary application of FL is orchestrating machine learning models along highways for interference classification based on snapshots from global navigation satellite system (GNSS) receivers. Extensive experiments on four GNSS datasets from two real-world highways and controlled environments demonstrate that our FL method surpasses state-of-the-art techniques in adapting to both novel interference classes and multipath scenarios.

Jamming devices present a significant threat by disrupting signals from the global navigation satellite system (GNSS), compromising the robustness of accurate positioning. The detection of anomalies within frequency snapshots is crucial to counteract these interferences effectively. A critical preliminary measure involves the reliable classification of interferences and characterization and localization of jamming devices. This paper introduces an extensive dataset compromising snapshots obtained from a low-frequency antenna, capturing diverse generated interferences within a large-scale environment including controlled multipath effects. Our objective is to assess the resilience of ML models against environmental changes, such as multipath effects, variations in interference attributes, such as the interference class, bandwidth, and signal-to-noise ratio, the accuracy jamming device localization, and the constraints imposed by snapshot input lengths. By analyzing the aleatoric and epistemic uncertainties, we demonstrate the adaptness of our model in generalizing across diverse facets, thus establishing its suitability for real-world applications.

We developed a hardware setup that captures short, wideband snapshots in both E1 and E6 GNSS bands. This setup is mounted to a bridge over a motorway. The setup records 20 ms raw IQ snapshots triggered from the energy with a sample rate of 62.5 MHz, an analog bandwidth of 50MHz and an 8 bit bit-width. At certain frequencies the GPS/Galileo or GLONASS signals can easily be seen as a slight increase in the spectrum. Note that experts manually analyzed the datastreams by thresholding CN/0 and AGC values. Manual labeling of these snapshots has resulted in 11 classes: classes 0 to 2 represent samples with no interferences, distinguished by variations in background intensity, while classes 3 to 10 contain different interferences. The challenge lies in adapting to positive class labels with only a limited number of samples available. We partition the dataset into a 64% training set, 16% validation set, and a 20% test set split (balanced over the classes).

The accuracy of global navigation satellite system (GNSS) receivers is significantly compromised by interference from jamming devices. Consequently, the detection of these jammers are crucial to mitigating such interference signals. However, robust classification of interference using machine learning (ML) models is challenging due to the lack of labeled data in real-world environments. In this paper, we propose an ML approach that achieves high generalization in classifying interference through orchestrated monitoring stations deployed along highways. We present a semi-supervised approach coupled with an uncertainty-based voting mechanism by combining Monte Carlo and Deep Ensembles that effectively minimizes the requirement for labeled training samples to less than 5% of the dataset while improving adaptability across varying environments. Our method demonstrates strong performance when adapted from indoor environments to real-world scenarios.

The accuracy and reliability of vehicle localization on roads are crucial for applications such as self-driving cars, toll systems, and digital tachographs. To achieve accurate positioning, vehicles typically use global navigation satellite system (GNSS) receivers to validate their absolute positions. However, GNSS-based positioning can be compromised by interference signals, necessitating the identification, classification, determination of purpose, and localization of such interference to mitigate or eliminate it. Recent approaches based on machine learning (ML) have shown superior performance in monitoring interference. However, their feasibility in real-world applications and environments has yet to be assessed. Effective implementation of ML techniques requires training datasets that incorporate realistic interference signals, including real-world noise and potential multipath effects that may occur between transmitter, receiver, and satellite in the operational area. Additionally, these datasets require reference labels. Creating such datasets is often challenging due to legal restrictions, as causing interference to GNSS sources is strictly prohibited. Consequently, the performance of ML-based methods in practical applications remains unclear. To address this gap, we describe a series of large-scale measurement campaigns conducted in real-world settings at two highway locations in Germany and the Seetal Alps in Austria, and in large-scale controlled indoor environments. We evaluate the latest supervised ML-based methods to report on their performance in real-world settings and present the applicability of pseudo-labeling for unsupervised learning. We demonstrate the challenges of combining datasets due to data discrepancies and evaluate outlier detection, domain adaptation, and data augmentation techniques to present the models' capabilities to adapt to changes in the datasets.

Jamming devices pose a significant threat by disrupting signals from the global navigation satellite system (GNSS), compromising the robustness of accurate positioning. Detecting anomalies in frequency snapshots is crucial to counteract these interferences effectively. The ability to adapt to diverse, unseen interference characteristics is essential for ensuring the reliability of GNSS in real-world applications. In this paper, we propose a few-shot learning (FSL) approach to adapt to new interference classes. Our method employs quadruplet selection for the model to learn representations using various positive and negative interference classes. Furthermore, our quadruplet variant selects pairs based on the aleatoric and epistemic uncertainty to differentiate between similar classes. We recorded a dataset at a motorway with eight interference classes on which our FSL method with quadruplet loss outperforms other FSL techniques in jammer classification accuracy with 97.66%.

The accuracy and reliability of vehicle localization on roads are crucial for applications such as self-driving cars, toll systems, and digital tachographs. To achieve accurate positioning, vehicles typically use global navigation satellite system (GNSS) receivers to validate their absolute positions. However, GNSS-based positioning can be compromised by interference signals, necessitating the identification, classification, determination of purpose, and localization of such interference to mitigate or eliminate it. Recent approaches based on machine learning (ML) have shown superior performance in monitoring interference. However, their feasibility in real-world applications and environments has yet to be assessed. Effective implementation of ML techniques requires training datasets that incorporate realistic interference signals, including real-world noise and potential multipath effects that may occur between transmitter, receiver, and satellite in the operational area. Additionally, these datasets require reference labels. Creating such datasets is often challenging due to legal restrictions, as causing interference to GNSS sources is strictly prohibited. Consequently, the performance of ML-based methods in practical applications remains unclear. To address this gap, we describe a series of large-scale measurement campaigns conducted in real-world settings at two highway locations in Germany and the Seetal Alps in Austria, and in large-scale controlled indoor environments. We evaluate the latest supervised ML-based methods to report on their performance in real-world settings and present the applicability of pseudo-labeling for unsupervised learning. We demonstrate the challenges of combining datasets due to data discrepancies and evaluate outlier detection, domain adaptation, and data augmentation techniques to present the models' capabilities to adapt to changes in the datasets.

Interference signals degrade and disrupt Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) receivers, impacting their localization accuracy. Therefore, they need to be detected, classified, and located to ensure GNSS operation. State-of-the-art techniques employ supervised deep learning to detect and classify potential interference signals. Here, literature proposes ResNet18 and TS-Transformer as they provide the most accurate classification rates on quasi-realistic GNSS signals. However, employing these methods individually, they only focus on either spatial or temporal information and discard information during optimization, thereby degrading classification accuracy. This paper proposes a deep learning framework that considers both the spatial and temporal relationships between samples when fusing ResNet18 and TS-Transformers with a joint loss function to compensate for the weaknesses of both methods considered individually. Our real-world experiments show that our novel fusion pipeline with an adapted late fusion technique and uncertainty measure significantly outperforms the state-of-the-art classifiers by 6.7% on average, even in complicated realistic scenarios with multipath propagation and environmental dynamics. This works even well (F-β=2 score about 80.1%), when we fuse both modalities only from a single bandwidth-limited low-cost sensor, instead of a fine-grained high-resolution sensor and coarse-grained low-resolution low-cost sensor. By using late fusion the classification accuracy of the classes FreqHopper, Modulated, and Noise increases while lowering the uncertainty of Multitone, Noise, and Pulsed. The improved classification capabilities allow for more reliable results even in challenging scenarios.

Interference signals cause position errors and outages to global navigation satellite system (GNSS) receivers. However, to solve these problems, the interference needs to be detected, classified, its purpose determined, and localized, such that it can be eliminated. Several interference monitoring solutions exist, but these are expensive, resulting in fewer nodes that may miss spatially sparse interference signals. This paper introduces a low-cost commercial-off-the-shelf (COTS) GNSS interference monitoring, detection, and classification receiver. It employs machine learning (ML) on tailored signal pre-possessing of the raw signal samples and GNSS measurements to facilitate a generalized, high-performance architecture that does not require human in the loop (HIL) calibration. Therefore, the low-cost receivers with high performance can justify significantly more receivers to be deployed, resulting in a significantly higher probability of intercept (POI). The initial results of controlled interference scenarios demonstrate detection and classification capabilities exceeding conventional approaches.